Wild Places East Africa: March 2018

IOM Consultant Reintegration Expert in Greater Bahr El Ghazaal

From March 2011, I was employed by the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), as Consultant Reintegration Expert for the IOM's Demobilisation, Disarmament and Reintegration (DDR) Program for former Sudan Peoples' Liberation Army (SPLA) soldiers in the States of Warrap, Northern and Western Bahr El Ghazaal that make up the region of Greater Bahr El Ghazaal (GBEG).

During this period I travelled extensively in GBEG, reviewing livelihoods options and interviewing former SPLA fighters and others, some of whom had benefited from a package of support intended to facilitate their reintegration into rural South Sudan. The result was a report on a "Labour Market and Natural Resources Assessment: Livelihoods Opportunities for the reintegration of demobilised militia and for Women in the Host Communities in northern and western Bahr El Ghazaal and Warrap States" - with recommendations that were intended to inform and improve the rural livelihoods re-establishment support provided by IOM to re-integrees.

Warrap State

Geography, administration and ethnology of Warrap

Warrap state, bordered to the West by Western Bahr El Ghazaal, to the North-West by Northern Bahr El Ghazaal, to the North by Southern Kordofan, to the East by Lakes and Unity States and to the South by Western Equatoria, comprises an area of some 31,027 km². The area is generally flat and altitude ranges between 428-456 m above sea level (asl). Warrap state is predominantly inhabited by the Dinka (Rek), with smaller numbers of Jur and Bongo.

Warrap state, with a population of approximately 972,928 people[1], isis administratively divided into six counties (Twic, Gogrial West, Gogrial East, Tonj North, Tonj East and Tonj South), which are further divided into some 41 payams (see Annex 6). The county headquarters for Twic county is Turalei, Gogrial for Gogrial West, Lieth Nhom for Gogrial East, Warrap for Tonj North, Romich for Tonj East and Tonj town for Tonj South. Kuajok town is the state capital.

[1] Statistical Year Book for Southern Sudan, 2010

Livelihoods in Warrap

Livelihoods in Warrap state are predominantly (87%) rural and principally based on animal husbandry (Cattle, sheep and goats) supported by crops-based agriculture (mainly dhurra production), and supplemented by scavenging poultry and the harvesting of forestry products (timber, charcoal, wild foods (fruits, leaves and tubers) and honey). Since major rivers pass through and flood the lowlands (“Toic”) of Warrap state, fishing is an important contributor to the diet and economic activity, with fish being dried for sale where there are large catches or where urban markets are distant. Cattle are the preferred livestock and are both a measure of wealth and status, used for social obligations (eg. payment of dowry), and to provide milk for production, home consumption and sale. In April/May 2011 most cattle were in the wetlands known to the Dinka as the “toich”, that make up the greater part of Warrap state, and several large herds of up to 1,000 head of cattle were observed.

Homestead areas cultivated are generally small (less than one feddan), as observed from areas covered with remains of sorghum stover. In the area close to the northern state border with Southern Kordofan, much larger areas (often 5-10 feddan) of Acacia seyal forest, are being cleared for agriculture, by returnees from the north. Probably, this is an indication of, by necessity, a greater dependence on crop production in the absence of any significant livestock assets.

The major part of Warrap state is located on the Western flood plains and soils are typically black cotton clays that are prone to water-logging and cracking. Their relatively high salt content, low nitrogen, and impermeability tend to result in poor crop root development, and while they produce good yields of adapted wild grass and sedge species, there are few food crops that will grow well. Crops that can grow well in this environment are pigeon pea, cowpea, onions and some vegetables, and of course “dhurra”, which is salt-tolerant, drought resistant and able to withstand short periods of waterlogging, and the most widely cultivated crop.

Fishing with spears, lines, nets and traps from rivers, streams, swamps, and seasonally river-flooded roadside dams created by road constructors, is an important contributor to food security, especially for households living in close proximity to rivers and flooded areas of the “toic”. Fishing and the sale of both fresh and dried fish in local markets are also important income generating activities, and it is clear that, mainly due to a lack of investment in cold chain transport and market storage and the high perishability of fresh fish, as well as a generally low catch per unit effort rate, that the market demand for fresh fish is rarely, if ever, met.

Agro-Ecology of Warrap

Warrap State, in the South, is located on the Ironstone Plateau (where the agro-ecology is similar to much of WBEG), but is mainly located in the area known as the Western Flood Plains. As one moves progressively North and East through Warrap state, the annual rainfall progressively declines, such that in southern Warrap state, rainfall is similar to WBEG (annual rainfall in excess of 1,000 mm), in central Warrap state, 700-800 mm, and in northern Warrap state, only 600-700 mm annual rainfall can be expected; and this is reflected in vegetation changes, with typical semi-arid vegetation types in the north and west with a greater predominance of Acacia species – viz. only a short distance to the NW of Warrap, Acacia gerrardii, the red-barked Acacia seyal and desert date (Balanites egyptiaca) become common and by the time Akop is reached, the fruit tree, “Nabuk”, Ziziphus mauritania has also become common (with some large specimens in the town). The marula fruit tree (Schlerocarya birrea) is also present, as is the valuable[2] hardwood, ebony (Diospyros melanoxylon). In areas away from the “toic” in northern Warrap state, close to Southern Kordofan, and West to Malual Bai in Northern Bahr El Ghazaal, the dominant vegetation is the characteristic red-barked Acacia seyal forest, large areas of which, along major trunk routes, are being cleared, by returnees, for agriculture.

Poor, frequently inundated clay soils of low fertility and permeability in the low-lying floodplains or “toic”, make food crop agriculture challenging, but are suited to some well-adapted perennial grass species. Wild rice (Oryza longistaminata) and Echinochloa pyramidalis are the dominant species that provide the dry-season grazing in the “toic” on which the Dinka’s transhumant cattle production system in the area is dependent.

A number of major rivers pass through the “toich” of Warrap state. They are the Peth (running due East from North of Akon), the Lol (which passes through Wunrok and later joins the Peth), the Jur (which passes Gogrial heading East) and the Tonj (which passes Tonj town heading North-East across Warrap state). These rivers generally experience peak flows from September to November due to precipitation from as far away as Central African Republic as well as within Warrap state. Widespread flooding from the rivers into broad flood plains and surrounding low-lying areas generally occurs between July to November, and is the reason for the seasonal movement of cattle into the area in the dry season between December and May, providing excellent dry season grazing and water.

Extending out from the riverine floodplains are grasslands intermittently flooded by rainfall, where the grass species, Hyparrhenia rufa, is harvested and used ubiquitously as thatching material for houses. Surrounding the grasslands are woodlands and wooded grassland dominated by Acacia seyal, Balanites egyptiaca and Ziziphus Mauritania. In April/May 2011, just before the start of the rains, cutting thatch and thatching was in progress and a major activity throughout the areas of WBEG, Warrap and NBEG travelled. Just north of Tonj in the area around Aguga are extensive bamboo stands, which are cut, loaded onto lorries and transported for split cane fencing in urban centres such as Wau and through Wau further north to Kuajok. A lorry and trailer load of cane is around 6,000 canes costing around SDG 3,000 loaded, and sells in Kuajok for around SDG 18,000.

Markets of Warrap

With rapidly developing major inter-state arterial murram road networks (eg. from Wau to Warrap, Warrap via Luonyaker and Gogrial to Aweil in Northern Bahr El Ghazaal, Wau via Tonj to Thiet, Gogrial via Turalei to Abyei in Southern Kordofan, Wunrok via Mayen Abun to Malual Bai/Malualkon in NBEG, the markets of Warrap state are becoming increasingly integrated. Primary supply of most consumer, and all manufactured goods to these markets is still through trade from North Sudan, principally from Khartoum. Primary sources of most staple grains in the markets in March/April 2010 are mainly Darfur, Kordofan and north to Omdurman and Khartoum. Virtually all vegetables, including perishables such as tomato, are being supplied at high cost, from Khartoum. A limited range of leafy vegetables – “Khudra” (Jute, Corchorus olitorius), “Regla” (Common Purslane, Portulaca oloracea), “JirJir” (Garden rocket, Eruca sativa) and “Figil” (Egyptian or White Radish, Raphanus sativus) are grown and sold in local markets. “Bamia” (okra, Hibiscus esculentus) is grown to a limited extent locally, but is the most widely available vegetable product in the markets, principally as dried or powdered product brought in from the north.

[1] Statistical Year Book for Southern Sudan, 2010

[2] Traded on the world market at prices of around US$ 15,000 per m³

Weaver Ants

Weaver ants (genus Oecophylla) live in trees, where they prey on insects, supplementing their diet with honey dew harvested from resident colonies of aphids, scale insects and leafhoppers (Hemiptera). They are known for their unique nest-building behaviour, where worker ants weave nests of leaves, bound together with larval silk. Colonies may span several trees, comprise more than 100 nests and contain more than 0.5 million worker ants. Weaver ants aggressively defend occupied trees against intruders, can inflict painful bites and frequently spray formic acid at the wound, causing intense irritation. In some countries farmers actively encourage colonisation of fruit trees by constructing rope "bridges" between trees, as fruit trees harbouring weaver ants, produce higher quality fruits, exhibit less damage by herbivores, and (despite the Hemiptera populations), require fewer applications of synthetic pesticides. In some countries (e.g.. Thailand), weaver ant larvae are a highly-prized delicacy (priced at twice the cost of prime quality beef), and contributing to the local economy, with, in a single province in NE Thailand, around US$ 0.6 million worth of ant larvae harvested per annum:

Weaver ant (Oecophylla longinoda) nests in Guava fruit tree

Weaver ant (Oecophylla longinoda) infestation of Guava fruit tree

Construction of a Dinka hut:

The Dinka are skilled builders, using locally available hard wood poles, wattle and mud to construct circular huts:

Centre poles for Dinka hut

Exterior walls of Dinka hut

Completed and partially-constructed Dinka hut

Certain grass species from seasonally flooded areas are cut and bundled and used either (dependent on species) for thatching houses (Hyparrhenia rufa) or woven into fencing panels. Large numbers of people are employed in cutting and bundling grasses for own use, weaving fences or thatching roofs, or selling the bundles in local and state capital markets:

Newly-thatched Dinka hut thatched with grass, Hyparrhenia rufa

Live chicken sales in Luonyaker market

General retail shop in Luonyaker market - Beneficiary of IOM retail shop starter kit

"Pac" (Dinka) - Camel foot tree - Piliostigma (formerly Bauhinia) thonningii

Seed pod of Piliostigma thonningii

Extensive areas of Warrap and Northern Bahr El Ghazaal are dominated by the leguminous shrub “pac” (Dinka), Piliostigma thonningii, the pods of which are an under-utilised resource with the potential to be processed into livestock feeds.

African Mahogany (Khaya senegalensis)

African Mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) - an important hardwood tree and valuable timber

The common and beautiful Agama lizard (Agama agama) - Male

Found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, Agama lizards live in social groups with one dominant male (the "cock" lizard), several females and a number of subordinate males. The male lizards are highly territorial and spend much of their time competing with other males to defend their territories. It is only the "cock" lizard that can mate with the females and subordinate males can only gain their own group by fighting and eliminating the dominant male.

Small vegetable farm of one Warrap State DDR Program Participant, irrigated from a flooded borrow pit, using a manual "Moneymaker" treadle pump supplied by IOM

Farmer with two "Moneymaker" treadle pumps in the background, harvesting the commonly-grown leafy vegetable "Khudra" = Jute (Corchorus olitorius) for sale

"Regla" (Arabic), or Common Purslane (Portulaca oloraceae) is one of the most commonly-grown (fleshy-leaved) vegetables in South Sudan.

The brilliant red or crimson-flowered ornamental Portulaca that is grown in the flowerbed central reservation of main roads in Juba is a member of the same family (Portulacaceae).

Portulaca oloraceae is the larval food plant of the common African butterfly, Hypolimnus missipus, the orange-brown female of which mimics the toxic African Monarch butterfly (Danaus chryssipus)

Another vegetable, commonly grown in the small farms, for sale in local markets is "Figil" (Arabic), Egyptian or White Radish (Raphanus sativus)

Amongst the Common Purslane, a few cabbages also grown

Pumpkin is also a popular crop

"Limo" (Ximenia caffra) is widespread in the bush around Luonyaker in Warrap State

Fruit of the Sour Plum (Ximenia caffra)

The thorny shrub, known as “limo” (Ximenia caffra) is widespread and produces small sour orange fruit that are much appreciated, eaten raw and for production of an alcoholic drink. In other parts of Africa an edible non-drying oil, with good keeping qualities, is extracted from the single seed and used as a cosmetic skin and hair oil and to soften leather. The yellowish wood is scented and resembles sandalwood.

The widespread Tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica), probably indigenous to tropical Africa, growing wild near Luonyaker

Leaves of Tamarindus indica

Tamarind fruit pod

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is a leguminous tree in the family Fabaceae. Indigenous to tropical Africa, it is widely cultivated in the tropics and sub-tropics. The Tamarind produces a pod-like fruit, with a sweet/sour edible pulp. The pulp can be used as a metal polish and oil can be extracted from the seeds.

Small plantation of citrus and mango in a fenced compound, protected from herbivores (principally goats) by green mosquito mesh seedling enclosures

Lorry load of bamboo canes for split-cane urban household fencing

In the wetter areas, bamboo forests occur. Bamboo canes, cut and transported by lorry from these areas to the outskirts of major towns such as Wau, are used to weave split bamboo fences, an industry that employs large numbers of people, given the almost exclusive use of bamboo or grass fences around urban household compounds.

Just north of Tonj in the area around Aguga are extensive bamboo stands, which are cut, loaded onto lorries and transported for split cane fencing in urban centres such as Wau and through Wau further north to Kuajok.

On the outskirts of towns (here on the edge of Wau town), the brick-making industry requires increasingly large quantities of fuel wood to bake the bricks for the construction of permanent homes

"Lulu" nut oil - Oil from Seeds of Vitellaria paradoxa (formerly Butyrospermum parkii), the Shea butter tree
sold in small bottles for cooking oil in Luonyaker (and many other markets) in South Sudan

Vitellaria paradoxa is widespread in the dry savannah belt from Senegal to Ethiopia. Throughout this region, the tree is left to grow in farmland and oil from the nuts used as a food oil. In Europe there is an increasing demand for Shea butter for use in cosmetics. The edible protein-rich caterpillars of the Saturniid moth Cirina butyrospermi, which feed on the leaves of V. paradoxa, are widely collected and eaten raw, dried or fried in Southern and Western Africa, but whereas entomophagy is practiced, consumption of Cirina butyrospermi has not been reported from South Sudan.

Tobacco for sale in Luonyaker market

Luonyaker: Five bulls being taken to the brides family as a down-payment of the bride price

Flowers of the widespread Acacia species, Acacia gerrardii - Note the paired long (up to 12.5 cm) stipular spines - greyish-white and tipped shiny dark brown

Acacia gerrardii grows to 15 m high and grows naturally at a wide altitude range from 900 - 2,200 m asl. The inner section of the rough, deeply-fissured bark is widely chewed, releasing a burning juice that treats coughs and sore throats.