Prior to the period spent as Managing Director of Green Forest Social Investment in the Gwassi Hills in Western Kenya, I worked (2010-2012) in
South Sudan ......
IOM Consultant Reintegration Expert in Greater Bahr El Ghazaal
First I was employed, from March 2010, by the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), as Consultant Reintegration Expert for the IOM's Demobilisation, Disarmament and Reintegration (DDR) Program for former Sudan Peoples' Liberation Army (SPLA) soldiers in the States of Warrap, Northern and Western Bahr El Ghazaal that make up the region of Greater Bahr El Ghazaal (GBEG).
During this period I travelled extensively in GBEG, reviewing livelihoods options and interviewing former SPLA fighters and others, some of whom had benefited from a package of support intended to facilitate their reintegration into rural South Sudan. The result was a report on a "Labour Market and Natural Resources Assessment: Livelihoods Opportunities for the reintegration of demobilised militia and for Women in the Host Communities in northern and western Bahr El Ghazaal and Warrap States" - with recommendations that were intended to inform and improve the rural livelihoods re-establishment support provided by IOM to re-integrees.
VSF Consultant Policy Adviser to Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries of GoRSS
Subsequently, from June 2011 to October 2012, I was employed by the International Non-Governmental Organisation (INGO), Veterinaires sans Frontieres - Belgium and deployed in the Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries (MARF) in Juba, as EC-funded Consultant Policy Adviser to the MARF of the Government of the Republic of South Sudan (GoRSS). During this period, in pursuit of a States-relevant and harmonised policy framework, I travelled to each of the then ten States of the new Republic of South Sudan, to collaboratively develop with each State MARF, a Policy Framework for livestock and fisheries sector development. The result were two budgeted documents: "MARF Policy Framework and Strategic Plans, 2012-2016" and "National Veterinary Plan, 2012-2014, with Budgeted Plans for the Directorate of Veterinary Services in all 10 States of the Republic of South Sudan". From a contact with the UN's Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) it is professionally rewarding to hear that "these are amongst the most frequently referenced documents in South Sudan".
Northern Bahr El Ghazaal (GBEG)
"Bahr El Ghazaal" means "River of the Gazelles" - the latter, sadly, by 2010, long gone - a casualty of the wide availability of automatic rifles consequent on the long war with the north. However, a vast territory and relatively low population density, mean that there are still many Wild Places in South Sudan.........
The state of Northern Bahr El Ghazaal
(NBEG), bordered to the South and West by Western Bahr El Ghazaal (WBEG), to
the East by Warrap State, to the North by South Darfur and to the North-West by
Southern Kordofan, comprises an area of some 33,558 km2. The area is principally inhabited by the
Dinka (Malual) and the Jur Chol.
NBEG, with a population of 720,898
(2008 census), is administratively divided into five counties (Aweil Centre,
Aweil East, Aweil North, Aweil South and Aweil West), which are further divided
into 37 payams. The county headquarters for Aweil Centre is
Arroyo, for Aweil East, Wanyjok/Mabil, for Aweil North, Gok Machar, for Aweil
South, Malek Alel and for Aweil East, Nyamlel.
The state capital is Aweil, one of the major towns of South Sudan.
Livelihoods in NBEG are predominantly
rural and principally based on livestock production (cattle, goats, sheep, and
scavenging poultry), supplemented by subsistence crops-based agriculture, and
the harvesting of fish and forestry products (timber, charcoal, wild foods
(fruits leaves and tubers) and honey).
With, in the South, Ironstone red
loams and predominantly clay soils throughout central and north NBEG, and a
well-distributed rainfall over eight months of typically 700-1,000 mm, NBEG has
considerable largely unexploited agricultural potential and the potential to
move from subsistence level agriculture at the household level to increasing
production with surplus for sale. However,
reduction in annual rainfall and associated vegetation changes are noticeable
as one moves North and East through NBEG state.
With increasing inter-state linkage of markets through major improvements
in the road network, opportunities exist for marketing surplus crop production
and reducing dependence on crop production in the north. Every opportunity should be taken to provide
support to agricultural production based livelihoods through the provision of
simple and easily serviceable technology (eg. replacing the “maloda” with the
East African hoe or ox plough, introducing irrigation through the shaduf,
washer or treadle pumps), farmer training and strengthening of marketing.
While livestock numbers in NBEG may
have declined over the war years, livestock holdings, particularly of cattle,
continue to define prestige and wealth and play a central role in social events
such as marriage. During April/May 2010, most of the cattle were in the “toich” areas. However, probably, increasing numbers are now
being kept in areas where they would not previously have been observed at this time
of year as a consequence of numerous roadside dams created as a consequence of
the activities of road construction excavation for road-surfacing
aggregates. Using FAO livestock
estimates extrapolated from 2005 Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries (MARF)
data, the average holding of livestock by a household in NBEG is in the region
of 10 head cattle, often with additionally large numbers of sheep and
goats. Livestock holdings are
notoriously difficult to quantify through questionnaires as livestock herders
are reluctant to disclose information on the numbers of livestock owned. However, whilst there are probably large
numbers of households without livestock, there are also wealthy households
owning hundreds or even in excess of one thousand head of cattle. Poorer households often receive cattle
through marriage of daughters and one DDR recipient of an IOM “General Shop”
livelihood support kit, advised the author of this report that he had, not only
collected a daughter back to his household because dowry had not been paid, but
had recently received 20 cattle as dowry payment for a second daughter married,
and would be selling two of the cows in order to add capital to the general
shop business through investment of about SDG 2,400 in stock.
Whilst overwhelmingly the main cereal
crop in NBEG is dhurra, around 200 ha of smallholder rice is grown in
seasonally flooded areas to the north of Aweil town. There is considerable potential to cultivate
swampland rice, both in NBEG and in Warrap state. In April/May 2010, land was being
ploughed by tractors just north of Aweil town for rice production with the
assistance of a GTZ project. It is
expected that by 2015, some 4,600 ha of rice will be cultivated under the Aweil
rice scheme, with the aim of producing around 9,200 MT of rice. Wild rice (Oryza longistaminata) is also one of the dominant indigenous
perennial grasses in the wetlands of NBEG and Warrap states and may have
potential to supply a niche market given consumer interest in wild grains in
Europe and North America.
Fishing with spears, lines, nets and
traps from rivers, streams, swamps, and seasonally river-flooded roadside dams
created by road constructors, is an important contributor to food security,
especially for households living in close proximity to rivers. Two main rivers cross the southern and
central parts of NBEG. They are the
River Kuom, which arises in the CAR and flows through WBEG and NBEG into Warrap
state and the River Lol, also originating in the CAR, which flows across NBEG north
of Aweil, through Gogrial West, where it is called Akon’s river and into Unity
state. A third major river defines the
natural border between the border of NBEG and that of Southern Darfur: The Bahr El Arab or River Kiir, arises in
mountainous areas of Darfur close to the border with Chad and the CAR, flows
along the South Darfur/NBEG border and enters Southern Kordofan. Fishing and the sale of both fresh and dried
fish in local markets are also important income generating activities, and it
is clear that, mainly due to a lack of investment in cold chain transport and
market storage and the high perishability of fresh fish, that the market demand
for fresh fish is rarely, if ever, met.
While the northern and central parts
of NBEG are located in the area categorized as the “Western Flood Plains”, the
southern part of NBEG is located on the great “ironstone plateau” of South
Sudan and shares the topography, soils, vegetation and a similar rainfall to
Western Bahr El Ghazaal.
However, by far the major part of
NBEG is located in the Western flood plains, a topographically flat area where
seasonal flooding from both rivers and localized rainfall is the norm. In the central and northern part of NBEG,
typified by the area around Malualkon, the most obvious dominant tree species,
known as “Asher” (Dinka) is Faidherbia
(formerly Acacia) albida.
Other dominant vegetation types are desert date (Balanites aegyptiaca), flood-adapted perennial grasslands in the
toich areas, and Borassus palm (Borassus
aethiopium). Between War Kwel and
Gok Machar, in the north-western part of the state, there are massive
concentrations of doum palm (Hyphaene
etbaica) over a large area, and doum palm products (eg. plaited doum palm
leaf rope) can be found for sale in local markets. There are extensive areas dominated by the
leguminous shrub “pac” (Dinka), Piliostigma
thonningii, the pods of which are an under-utilised resource with the
potential to be processed into livestock feeds.
The horse radish tree (Moringa
oleifera), “Anet” (Dinka), green pods and leaves of which can be utilized
as a vegetable is not uncommon, particularly in urban centres such as Aweil,
but is apparently not much utilized. Common
in the area around Malualkon and as forest from north of Malualkon to the
border with Southern Darfur is the red-barked gum acacia species, Acacia seyal. In War Awar, said to be the oldest
established market town in NBEG and approximately 20 km to the NE of Malualkon,
gum Arabic from Acacia seyal is
traded, though this is not a substantial trade, as gum Arabic from Acacia seyal is of an inferior quality
to gum Arabic collected from Acacia
Senegal which is a resource only found north of NBEG state. Acacia
seyal gum is purchased from collectors in War Awar for around SDG 67
(approx. US$ 21) per 50 kg and sold to traders transporting the gum to Khartoum
for around SDG 110 (approx. US$ 34) per 50 kg bag.
The long rain season (from April to
November) that averages around 900 mm rainfall across the state allows for the
production of a range of crops. However,
relatively small areas of land, typically not more than 0.48 ha,
are prepared with the “maloda” and planted mainly to dhurra sorghum. It was evident, that in general farm size
increased with distance from urban centres.
Two short perennial crops are
potentially useful in the area and should be promoted where possible – One is
the tuber crop, cassava (Manihot
esculenta), which is occasionally seen; the other is a short perennial pulse,
pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Throughout the study, a few plants of pigeon
pea were observed in only one location, beyond Wanjok on the road to
Aweil. The farmer was aware of the
benefits and suitability of pigeon pea as a dryland crop as he had worked on
farms in north Sudan, from where he had carried the seed, and where it was an
important crop.
Also, in NBEG, much use is made of
wild plants, seeds, fruits and tubers, which can be a substantial contributor
to the diet, eg. the fruit and leaves of Balanites
egyptiaca, the fruit and sprouted roots of Borassus aethiopium, the fruits of Hyphaene etbaica, Boscia
senegalensis and Ximenia Americana,
the seeds and rhizomes of water lily (Nymphaea
spp.) and the seeds of wild grasses.
Mango (Mangifera indica) is
seldom seen outside urban centres, and even in the main urban centres in NBEG
is not as abundant as further south.
This is an additional indicator of the greater reliance on pastoralism
in NBEG as mango, when planted (and initially protected from cattle and goats),
grow well in the area.
For many people in rural areas with
access to markets, the cutting and burning of hardwood trees for charcoal
production is an important (and potentially environmentally destructive) source
of income. In the southern part of NBEG,
the tree species mainly used is ironwood (Prosopis
Africana); further north it is often Acacia
seyal. At present in NBEG, this business
remains in the hands of individual rural producers, who transport 2-3 sacks of
charcoal per day to market, mainly by bicycle.
However, with increasing demand for charcoal in the towns and for logs
to fuel the brick kilns, it is only a matter of time before the collection,
transportation and sale of fuel logs and charcoal becomes organized on a bigger
scale.
With rapidly developing major
inter-state arterial murram road networks (eg. from Aweil North-West through
Gok Machar and north into Southern Darfur, From Aweil North-East via Malualkon
and Malual Bai to Turalei in Warrap state and north to Abyei in Southern
Kordofan, from Aweil south to Wau, the markets of NBEG are becoming
increasingly integrated. Primary supply
of most consumer, and all manufactured goods to these markets is still through
trade from North Sudan, principally from Khartoum. Primary sources of most staple grains in the
markets in March/April 2011 are mainly Darfur,
Kordofan and north to Omdurman and Khartoum.
Virtually all vegetables, including perishables such as tomato, are
being supplied at high cost, from Khartoum.
A limited range of leafy vegetables – “Khudra” (Jute, Corchorus olitorius), “Regla” (Common
Purslane, Portulaca oloracea),
“JirJir” (Garden rocket, Eruca sativa)
and “Figil” (Egyptian or White Radish, Raphanus
sativus) are grown and sold in local markets. Fresh, dried or ground “Bamia” (okra, Hibiscus esculentus) is grown to a
limited extent locally, but is the most widely available vegetable product in
the markets, chiefly as dried or ground okra, brought in from the north. Increasingly, it is vegetables produced with
irrigation water, pumped by motor or treadle pump from the roadside dams
created as a side-effect of road construction, that are being supplied to local
markets.
Aweil, Northern Bahr El Ghazaal
The long period of seasonal rainfall throughout much of South Sudan, coupled with the extensive earth road construction, ahead of the new Republic in 2010, introduced significant opportunities for small-scale fisheries and irrigation-based livelihoods, from the borrow pits located adjacent to the roads that had been mined for aggregates for road construction and subsequently filled naturally with flood waters:
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| Inexpensive Chinese diesel-powered irrigation pump and roadside borrow pit |
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Small diesel pump irrigated jute (Corchorus olitorius) - a popular cooked vegetable in South Sudan
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| Valentino (IOM) Operating Super Money Maker manual treadle pump |
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| Tobacco cash crop manually irrigated from roadside borrow pit with Kickstart's Super Money Maker treadle pump |
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| Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan) - A staple crop in Eastern Kenya and a new high potential rain-fed crop for South Sudan |
Gok Machar and Nyamlel, Northern Bahr El Ghazaal
Renewable natural resources (eg. fibrous Doum palm leaves) and local skills provide a basis for rural livelihoods in NBEG:
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| Doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica) - an important natural resource |
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| Bundles of leaves from the Doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica) in War Kwel market, NBEG |
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| Dried fish baskets woven from Doum palm leaves |
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| Doum palm rope at War Kwel market, NBEG |
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| Making fishing net at Nyamlel, NBEG |
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| Fishing at Nyamlel |
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| Net fishing at Nyamlel |
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| The catch |
On the road from Malualkon to Wau, Northern Bahr El Ghazaal
In the markets of Aweil and Wau in NBEG, can be found very basic fish spears and agricultural tools, manufactured by local blacksmiths from iron:
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| Fish spear points without barbs |
Probably the single most limiting factor to increasing agricultural production in Greater Bahr El Ghazaal is the almost exclusive use of the “maloda” for land preparation, which is used from a sitting or kneeling position and typically limits the user to the preparation of not more than 10 m2 per hour (cf. a farm labourer with an East African hoe can prepare 40 m2 per hour and a pair of well-trained oxen and mould board plough can plough 1,000 m2 per hour):
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| Forged farm tools in Aweil market |
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| Forged rake heads in Aweil market |
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| Fishing in the "Toich" (flooded swamp areas) by random fish spear throwing |
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| Forged farm tools in Wau market |
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| Basic farm tools in Wau market |
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| Basic farm tools in Wau market |
Malualkon, Northern Bahr El Ghazaal
Wanjok and War Awar markets:
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| In Wanjok market - a former SPLA soldier supported by IOM to establish a small general retail shop |
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| In War Awar market - a bicycle tools and spare parts retail shop (self-started) |
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| In War Awar market - a trader of harvested gum arabic (naturally air-dried sap from Acacia senegal) |
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| Gum Arabic - naturally air dried gum of Acacia senegal (highest quality) or Acacia seyal (lower quality) |
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Flooded borrow pits for road construction allow some milch cows to remain, during the dry season, at the homestead, instead of being herded in the "toich"
(the dominant tree species in the forest in the background is the red-barked Acacia seyal) |
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| Rural industry - Fired bricks from clay mined from borrow pit |
Malwal, Northern Bahr El Ghazaal
Growing wild on poor soils subject to seasonal inundation, and at elevations of from 700 - 1,700 metres asl,
Gardenia ternifolia is an evergreen shrub or small tree (to 6 m height) with intertwined branches, short hard thorny twigs and spectacular and fragrant large yellow flowers:
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| Gardenia ternifolia |
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| Trunk of Gardenia ternifolia |
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| Flowering Gardenia ternifolia |
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| Flower bud - Gardenia ternifolia |
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| Flowers - Gardenia ternifolia |
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| Flower and leaves - Gardenia ternifolia |
Occasionally, the leaves are cooked and eaten. The pale yellow to red fine grained heavy wood is used for making knife and tool handles. The wood is also burned to prepare potash (used to make soap). A fragrant resin can be harvested, and a black stain, used to colour skin, obtained from the seed. The roots of
Gardenia ternifolia are used medicinally and concoctions made from the macerated roots are laxative and anthelminthic.
Wanjok, Northern Bahr El Ghazaal
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| Crocodile in the "toich" near Malualkon |
Cassia abbreviata is a shrub or small tree, growing to 10 m in height. Found in dry
Acacia /
Commiphora woodland at altitudes from sea level to 1,500 m asl. The pounded bark can be used to tan leather. Root and bark preparations are used medicinally.
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| Leaves of Cassia abbreviata |
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| Fragrant yellow flowers of Cassia abbreviata |
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Seed Pod of Cassia abbreviata - the "Sjambok" tree or Long pod Cassia (pods up to 90 cm in length)
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Balanites aegyptiaca is a multi-branched spiny shrub or tree, and one of the commonest trees in dry bushland from sea level to 2,000 m. Lopped leafy branches are an important source of dry-season livestock fodder. Young leaves and shoots are eaten as a cooked vegetable and the bitter-sweet pulpy flesh of the fruit eaten raw. Seeds are cracked and the kernels roasted and eaten; an edible cooking oil with a high smoking point is extracted from the crushed kernels. Kernel cake can be and is used as a livestock feed. The high density pale yellow to brown wood is termite-resistant, hard, durable and worked easily. It can also be converted into high quality charcoal.
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| The Desert Date (Balanites aegyptiaca) "Lalob" - an important fruit tree in South Sudan |
The Strangler Fig is a hemi-epiphyte that begins life as a seed deposited by a bird or bat in the canopy of the host tree (in this case a Borassus palm). It then grows as an epiphyte (on the surface of the host plant, deriving its nutrients from the air, rain and organic debris). Subsequently, the strangler fig sends roots down to the ground and the plant begins to take nutrients from the soil. As the strangler fig grows, its roots wrap around and enclose or "strangle" the host's trunk:
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| Borassus palm enveloped by a Strangler fig. |
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| Traditional earth brick constructed bread oven |
Malualkon and Wathmuok, Northern Bahr El Ghazaal
Growing in the IOM compound in Malualkon are two important trees. One (
Faidherbia albida) is indigenous and widespread; the other (
Moringa oleifera) is an exotic, originating probably from India. Both trees are useful in drylands areas and deserve to be promoted.
Faidherbia Albida, The "Apple-ring Acacia" or "Fertiliser tree"
One of the tallest trees in Africa, in 10-15 years,
F. albida can reach a height of 20-30 m and canopy diameter of 5-10 m. It is widely distributed throughout the Sahelian region of Africa at altitudes from 500 to 2,000 m asl.
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| Faidherbia (formerly Acacia) albida in the IOM compound in Malualkon |
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Seed pod of Faidherbia albida, the "apple ring acacia" or "fertiliser tree"
Flowers are fragrant creamy yellow long (10 cm) spikes, attractive to bees |
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| Faidherbia albida in NBEG in the dry season |
Research into the benefits of inter-cropping with
Faidherbia albida began in the 1950's, when it was observed that farmers throughout the Sahelian region retained the trees in their sorghum and millet fields. The tree exhibits "reverse leaf phenology" - enters dormancy and sheds its nitrogen-rich leaves at the start of the rainy season, when crop seeds are being planted and the germinating seedlings need nitrogen and light (the tree is leafless and doesn't shade the crop during the growing season). When the dry season begins, the tree re-grows its leaves, and the fresh leaves and protein-rich pods can provide an important livestock fodder, when other plants have dried up.
Whilst the "fertiliser" benefits of the tree in inter-cropping are real (at a density of 100 trees per hectare, mature F. albida trees supply the equivalent of 300 kg N fertiliser + 250 kg lime, which can result in a 2-4 times increase in maize yield), there is general agreement that F. albida does not provide these benefits for a substantial period of time, taking 7-15 years to reach maturity, and possibly 20-40 years to grow to a size when it can significantly improve the yield of crops planted under its canopy. Under a traditional shifting cultivation system, soil fertility is generally depleted after about five cropping seasons, well before planted Faidherbia albida can provide its "fertiliser" benefits.
In a 20-40 year cropping rotation in agricultural land, Faidherbia albida provides soil nutrients, livestock and bee forage, wood fuel, charcoal and timber for construction.
Moringa oleifera, the "horseradish" or "drumstick" tree
Commonly cultivated in Sudan on sandy soils and at low altitudes, and often seen in South Sudan in urban compounds formerly occupied by northerners, Moringa oleifera, is an exotic member of the genus Moringa, probably originating from India.
The leaves and young pods are popular in many areas of the world as a cooked vegetable. The roots have a taste similar to horseradish.
Oil from the seeds, known as "Ben oil" (because of the high content of behenic acid), has an unusually long shelf life and a mild and pleasant taste. It has been used for thousands of years in industrialised countries as a perfume base, with a recent resurgence in demand due to its qualities as an effective skin moisturiser with nutritionally significant quantities of vitamins A, C and E, as well as naturally occurring anti-inflammatory factors. Ben oil burns with a clear light and no smoke. At one time it was widely used for oiling industrial machinery and as a watch oil. Where cultivated, it is used in salad oils, skin poultices and for making soap. Sri Lanka exports the seeds to the French cosmetics and textile industries.
The pulverised seeds are useful in purifying muddy water through the flocculation and sedimentation of sediments in suspension.
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| Moringa oleifera in the IOM compound in Malualkon |
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Moringa oleifera "drumsticks" - seed pods of 30-60 cm long and 1-2 cm width, split to release 3-winged seeds
The long sprays of creamy white to yellow flowers are attractive to many insects. |
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| Borassus palms "Aluf" (Borassus aethiopium) around a homestead in Northern Bahr El Ghazaal |
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Dryland Acacia seyal forest in Northern Bahr El Ghazaal close to the border with Kordofan
Large areas of this forest along the border are being cut and burned for agriculture. |
Acacia seyal has a characteristic powdery green or (in this case) powdery red outer layer, which eventually disappear to reveal a green inner bark. The tree produces an edible gum ("gum arabic" - originally collected from
Acacia nilotica), which is of a lower quality than that produced by
Acacia senegal, and used in confectionary, in wine and beer brewing as a fining agent, in shoe polish and as a safe lickable adhesive (eg. on postage stamps). Sudan (80%), Chad and Nigeria together export 95% of World production of gum arabic. The wood is useful for fuel, charcoal, and for building poles; the bark for tanning. The foliage is useful as a livestock fodder and the capitate yellow inflorescences attractive to bees. As with other
Leguminosae, the trees improve soil fertility through Nitrogen-fixation.
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